Final Essay

Due to the diverse culture, people, and religious beliefs, each religion interacts with each other in America, and meanwhile different religious beliefs shape the mainstream of American religion. In addition, traditional religious beliefs have been challenged by socio-cultural phenomenon of American life. Eastern religions first came to America during nineteenth century; however, Americans have expressed religious expansion in turning to Eastern religious forms, and Eastern believers have shown expansiveness by adopting aspects of an American religious style. [1] The spiritual figures from Eastern religions have become some popular icons in American culture. The fourteenth Dalai Lama of Tibetan Buddhism (Theravada) has become one of most recognizable spiritual figures in American society, and indeed Americans love Dalai Lama. [2] Furthermore, the minority monks of Tibetan Buddhism have a special political mission fighting for their physical, cultural and spiritual existence, which leads Tibetan Buddhism into the public eye.

Many other spiritual figures and religious beliefs from Eastern countries also have impacted public and cultural realities of American life. Individual religious figures (gurus, sages, swamis, masters, teachers) from a variety of ethnic background point to a diverse filed of encounter, but they are homogenized within American popular consciousness and culture. [3] Meanwhile, the diversity of races and religious identities brought a social phenomenon-racialization of religion in American society. Hinduism, Sikhism, and Islam are three different belief systems, but they share some of the major outcomes of racialization in America. Some South Asian American Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims are a problematically situated “other”-brown-skinned, non-Christians who are therefore multiple foreign. [4] Besides, their own traditional practices, such as hijab among Muslim women, kufi worn by Muslim men, and the bindi or forehead “dot” worn by Hindu women, are some cultural markers of their religious identities in American society. As a result, the distinction of different denominations within each religion has been ignored. As racial similarity allows for the presumption that Hinduism, Sikhism, and Islam are theologically related, and the shared phenomenon of brown skin erased the difference between Sunni and Shi’a Islam. [5]

The first Africans came to America from West Africa, and some of them believed Islam and many of practitioners followed their traditional African religions. However, the African-American religion had been strongly influenced by Western religions in America.  Due to the enslavement and isolation of African-Americans from those who came from their community or spoke their language, African-Americans reconstructed a new situation of their religion with materials from Christian traditions and the religions of their masters. [6] African-American religious ritual expresses spiritual beliefs with God in gesture, dance, and song. There was correspondence that obtained between African religions and Protestantism. For instance, in the emotional preaching and ecstatic behavior of Baptist and Methodist revival services, African-American slaves encountered a ritual equivalent to the spirit possession ceremonies of Africa. [7] Gradually, many African-Americans who were converted to Christians embraced American Protestantism. Nevertheless, African-American Christians suffered some unequal rights in American society, which prohibited them entering white churches.  The segregation of black and white churches signified the existence of two Christianities, and the deep chasm divided them across racial lines in American society during that period. [8]

When Christopher Columbus first arrived in North America, he brought some “New Christians.” They were Spanish Jews, and in fear of the Inquisition, they had converted to Christianity. [9] Hence, the Western religious beliefs began to form and later dominate American religious history. The Native Americans developed own cultures and religious beliefs, but by sixteenth-century, Spanish Catholics and French missionaries started “interruption” with religious beliefs and theologies among Native Americans.  Some politically active Christians encouraged Native Americans to develop Theology of Liberation against injustice in American society. [10] However, Christians had a different way of going about the struggle for justice than most Native Americans in a variety ways. The liberation theology preoccupied with Exodus story was inappropriate way for Native Americans to think about liberation. [11] In addition, religious combination occurred between Native American religions and Christianity. Different from traditional Native American beliefs and practices, they added some Catholic ceremonies on the ceremonial calendars in the various pueblos during eighteenth-and nineteenth-centuries. [12] Meanwhile, some new religious practices of Native American occurred in American religious history, and government passed American Indian Religious Freedom Act that allows Native Americans to have own religious beliefs and practices.

Diverse traditions and religious beliefs shape the structure of American religions. The public and socio-cultural realities of American life also challenge traditional religions from different countries in American society. Meanwhile, many new religious practices and denominations have been created in American religious history.

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1.     Catherine L. Albanese, "Manyness: Patterns of Expansion and Contraction" in American Religions & Religion, (Wadsworth: Cengage Learning, 1999), 205.

2.     Jane Naomi Iwamura, “The Oriental Monk In American Popular Culture” in Religion and Popular Culture in America, edited by Bruce David Forbes and Jeffery H. Mahan, (California: UC Press 2000), 26.

3.     Iwamura, 27.

4.     Khyati Y. Joshi,  “The Racialization of Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism in the United States” in Equity & Excellence in Education, (Routledge, 2006), 214.

5.     Joshi, 220.

6.     Albanese, 140.

7.     Albert J. Raboteau, “A Fire in the Bones” in Reflections on African-American Religious History, (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 189.

8.     Rabotrau, 188.

9.     Albanese, 42.

10. Robert Allen Warrior, “Canaanites, Cowboys, and Indians Deliverance, Conquest, and Liberation Theology Today” in Native and Christian Indigenous Voices on Religious Identity in the United States and Canada, edited by James Treat, (London: Rouledge, 1996), 94.

11. Warrior, 95.

12. Albanese, 36. 

Blog #3 Connections

        My father is a Presbyterian Protestant, and his religious beliefs reflect some common themes in American religious history. The denominationalism, postpluralism, moralism, and revivalism are some characteristics in Protestantism's code, cultus, and creed that shape the structure of American religion. By definition, denominationalism means dividing one religion into different groups or sects of thought. Over the past centuries, Christianity has been divided into numerous denominations, such as Evangelicalism, Presbyterianism, Lutheranism, and Pentecostalism. According to the history of Christianity in America, denominationalism was generally accepted and assumed to be the proper organizational embodiment of the Christianity during 1850 to 1860. [1] The prevalence of denominational Protestantism formed a virtual identification of American religion in 19th-century. Many new religions emerged from Roman Catholicism and became denominations, a voluntary society of gathered members, meanwhile shaping the framework for American Protestantism. In addition, the theology of denominationalism implies ideas about "religious liberty" and "democratic equality" in American society, which "congress could make no law either establishing a religion or prohibiting its "free exercise." [2] With the religious freedom, the "free churches" had given up coercive power and had assumed the responsibility collectively to define and inculcate the population the basic beliefs necessary for the being and well being of the democratic society in America. [3] My father's church belongs to denominational families in Christianity, and the rest two denominations are individual denominations and ecclesiastical families.

         However, Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy do not agree with the term-denominationalism, which it is a Protestant concept in Christianity. Therefore, coalitions or combinations of different religious creeds, codes, and cultus existed in American religious history.  During nineteenth-century, Jewish cultus was influenced by Protestantism in America, which Jews changed Sabbth for a period Sunday services. Furthermore, Protestant denominations took shape as forms of American Judaism. [4] Due to diversity of people, religious beliefs, styles of worship, and codes, religions in America interacted with one another, and especially Protestant codes and cultus had affected American religious styles. For example, my father's church encourages theological diversity among believers unlike many other conservative Presbyterian churches.

            Moralism is a vital code in Protestantism, and the idea gradually had a strong impact in American society. America's core culture was primarily formed by seventeenth- and eighteenth- century settlers who founded American society. Moreover, the central elements of the culture were consisted of a variety of religious beliefs, such as Protestant values and moralism, Christian religion. [5] The moralism and beliefs of Protestantism integrated into American culture, which plays a role in antislavery and women's rights movement. Women could be ordained to the ministry in many Presbyterian churches. In addition, American political values were embodied moralism and moral creeds. In 1979, Jerry Falwell announced the formation of a national political organization of Bible-believing Americans called the Moral Majority. [6] The Moral Majority involved in many political activities, including national media campaigns and supporting particular candidates in elections until late 1980s.

            Referring to history of Presbyterianism, it was triggered to separate ideas from Calvinism during the first decade of nineteenth-century. Due to doctrinal and organizational differences and disagreement on the "new measure" of the revivalist Charles G. Finney, Presbyterians preferred to divide the Church rather than perpetuate heresy and discord. [7] Hence, the church was split to two new denominations. The Old School Presbyterians preserved traditional Calvinism and opposed revivalism, promoted a rigorous Christianity. [8] The New School Presbyterians wished to evangelize the nation, to convert the sinful, and to raise the country's moral level. [9] My father moved to United States in 1996, and his religious beliefs and practices had been influenced by American culture and society, which tends to the new condition of voluntarism. He does desire that individuals pray for God or work through to conversion, but he believes people should be voluntary to form or have faiths. 

            In summary, my father's religious history illustrates some common themes in American religion.  There is no specific religion that can describe American religion, but some codes, creeds, and cultus of my father's religion shape the mainstream of American religious history. In addition, the religious liberty, democratic equality, and church-state separation form new conditions of American religion, which also challenges traditional religious beliefs.

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      1. Sidney E. Mead, "American Protestantism Since the Civil War. I. From Denominationalism to Americanism" in Journal of Religion, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), 1-16. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1200745 (accessed September 5, 2013).

             2.  Catherine L. Albanese, "The Public, the Civil, and the Culture of the Center" in American Religions & Religion, (Wadsworth: Cengage Learning, 1999), 275-301.

       3. Sidney E. Mead, "American Protestantism Since the Civil War. I. From Denominationalism to Americanism" in Journal of Religion, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), 1-16. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1200745 (accessed September 5, 2013).

            4. Catherine L. Albanese, "The Public, the Civil, and the Culture of the Center" in American Religions & Religion, (Wadsworth: Cengage Learning, 1999), 275-301.

            5. Samuel P. Huntington,  Who are We?: The Challenges to America's National Identity. (Simon & Schuster, 2005), 40.

            6.  Susan F. Harding, "American Protestant Moralism and the Secular Imagination: From Temperance to the Moral Majority," in Social Research, (The New School, 2009), 1277-1306. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40972214 (accessed September 5, 2013).

            7. Robert W. Doherty, "Social Bases For The Presbyterian Schism of 1837-1838 The Philadelphia Case" in Journal of Social History, (Oxford University Press, 2013), 72-79. http://jsh.oxfordjournals.org/content/current (accessed September 5, 2013).

              8. Robert W. Doherty, 72-79. 

Mini Blog: Discussion about "The Oriental Monk in American Popular Culture"

Summary

In the chapter “The Oriental Monk In American Popular Culture,” Jane Naomi Iwamura discussed that the Oriental Monk is not only a spiritual figure in Eastern religions, but also an icon in American popular culture. Iwamura talked about the “initiation” of Oriental Monk in American culture through D. W. Griffth’s film, Broken Blossoms, which Eastern spirituality engaged with Western religion. Later, by the Civil Right Movement and 1965 Immigration Act, Eastern religions and culture gradually “arrive” on the American coasts. Meanwhile the Oriental Monk narrative has become increasingly popular in American culture. At the end of this chapter, Iwamura stated that the Fourteenth Dalai Lama is transformed to an American popular cultural figure. He represents a figure with the spiritual mission of Buddhism. In addition, his religious practices and beliefs became a political mission which fights for Tibetans’ “the physical, cultural, and spiritual existence.”

Extra Links:

Oriental Monk as Popular Icon: On the Power of U.S. Orrientalism

http://jaar.oxfordjournals.org/content/79/3/735.full

Dalai Lama: No More ‘Wolf in Monk’s Robes’?

http://rendezvous.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/06/27/dalai-lama-no-more-wolf-in-monks-robes/?_r=0

Questions:

1.      In the article, author used D. W. Grifth’s film to manifest the “initiation” of Oriental Monk in Western culture. The film’s moral lesson rests on a threat: “If the Christianized West is unable to care for its children, the noble Buddhist East will.” What do you think about this sentence or the meaning of the film that screenwriter wanted to indicate?

2.      Iwamura pointed out the Oriental Monk has become the icon in a variety of American popular cultural representations. How does it connected to American culture? Or are there any other non-Western religious figures which become the icon in American popular culture?

Blog #2 Particular Tradition

            My family used to go to a small church in China-a Presbyterian church. The church itself does not look very old, but my father has been attending this church for most of his lifetime. Distinct from father, I visited many other churches in China, and it confuses me sometimes. The name for each branch of Christianity may be different, but I did not observe any obvious differences. When I came to United States during college, I realize most Christian churches are quite identical, and the traditions or teachings are not so different either.

            When it comes to Presbyterian Christian traditions, I found that by far every church I attended shares the exact same tradition. The root of Presbyterianism comes from theological and evangelical tradition, such as gender, status and regional variations. [1] First, baptism is one of most important ceremony for a Christian to declare his or her faith in becoming a Christian. Although sometimes Christian family gives new born baptism-infant baptism, but this is merely a symbolic baptism. A person may apply for another baptism at roughly 14 years old, depending on the rules for each church. The traditions for baptism has been in Christian society for more than two thousand years, and the procedures are the same in churches of United States and China. Even though the procedure for baptism is the same, there are minor differences in the “measures” for baptism in United States and China. My father told me the pastor dipped his hand into a golden plate of water and proceeded to lay hand on my father’s head as part of the baptism ceremony. However, it is more common to submerge the entire human body into a Jacuzzi, swimming pool, or a river in United States. According to Bible, Jesus was baptized in Jordan River, so I believed that the way baptism is performed must have been modified more or less along the course of the entire Christianity history. According to Holmes, Presbyterian tradition manifests “how those beliefs and practices [that have been held by laity] combine theological tenets with customary belief and socio-political objectives.” [2]

            The second very important ritual that Presbyterian Christians do is the communion, which is usually scheduled monthly. The history of communion can be traced back to the time when Jesus was killed approximately two thousand years ago. Before Jesus was to be pinged on the cross by Romans, he broke the bread and shared the pieces to his disciples, and then he toasted with his wine, passing his cup to his disciples during The Last Supper. [3] Jesus did this because he knew he was going to die, so communion is to remember the death of Jesus Christ. Because the first communion was done thousands years ago, communion now sometimes performs differently than that of in the history. For one thing, the communion bread that my father’s church has is made out of Chinese dumpling skins, while many churches in United States simply cuts out a loaf of bread and shed it into pieces.  The tradition of wine drinking in communion has also been reformed worldwide. In ancient time, people drank the real wine during a communion, but it is not feasible to serve alcohol in church especially because many baptized Christians are underage. Therefore, grape juice has been replaced for the actual wine very long ago both in United States and China as my father confirmed. Although the tradition for communion changed slightly, the core reason to perform communion remains the same. Christians believe that communion is the way to come both in faith and in love towards Christ, and in love one toward another. [4]

            In summary, the various traditions and rituals for Christianity do not differ very much in my father’s experience and in United States. Although there are differences in the practices of Christian traditions, the main concept remains unchanged. In fact, these actual practices of various Christian traditions are often not stated very clearly in the Bible too, so the ambiguities occurred. Fortunately, these ambiguities do not incur problems, given that the teachings in United States are similar to that of in China.

 

1.      Andrew R Holmes, The Shaping of Ulster Presbyterian Relief and Practice 1770-1840 (Oxford University Press, 2008), 374.

2.      Andrew R Holmes, The Shaping of Ulster Presbyterian Relief and Practice 1770-1840 (Oxford University Press, 2008), 374.

3.      Bob Deffinbaugh, “The Last Supper,” Bible Organization, https://bible.org/seriespage/last-supper-luke-227-23 (accessed August  2013).

4.      John Aikman Wallace, Communion Services, according to the Presbyterian form, (General Books, 2012), 15.

Blog#1 Introduction

Unlike many Asian families, I grow up in a family who believes Christianity, and naturally I also became a Christian. Both my parents are very into Christianity, and they also “pray” to God every day. For a Christian, the “practice” is quite simple, we close our hands together and “talk to god.” This is one of many rituals that Christians do very frequently- pray. Christians pray in many occasions: before going to work; before each meal; during sick time, etc. In general, praying is what Christians do to communicate with God, and we are taught to see God as a father, who cares and loves everyone on earth even the non-believer. Ever since I was a child, I remembered my father kneed by the bed with my mom and pray every morning. I did not understand why they would pray in the morning before they go to work every day. My father would also be enraged if I proposed to ditch the church on Sunday. My understanding to the word “religion” is a kind of notion that gives the believers the hope in passion, strong enough to conduct certain rituals in order to justify what the believers think the greater entity would be pleased about. I was almost never truly passionate about something. Religion used to be something that I took for granted, but I had never been consistently passionate about it. My father, however, is the opposite.

            My father helps out in the church and participates various activities of the church. Sometime, he is the usher whose duty is to hand out bulletins to people. Usher is an important role in the church because an usher is the first person to be seen from afar and is also the one who greets the new comer. My father believes that usher, just as every other position in a church structure, is an invaluable position. He believes that God evaluate each individual by the individual’s passion in serving God, so even as little as an usher can be remembered by God as long as he or she has the passion in being an usher. At some other times, he would attend the prayer request meeting, where church members pray together for the people in need. Usually, people who go to the prayer request meeting would pray at one thing at a time in a circle, and the process for praying can take a long time, depending on the number of prayer requests the church received weekly.

            When I asked my father how he became so spiritual, he replied that he had gone through various testimonies that he determined impossible to be coincidental. He shared one testimony with me one day when I confronted him with the tightened financial pressure in our family. Although this testimony is not the very first few reasons that he became actively participated in the church, it is one of many reasons that strengthens his belief in God’s existence. As depression has been going on for quite a while, my parent’s financial burdens grow more heavily each day, leaving them with the only choice to loan from the bank. In the end, my parents loaned ten of thousand dollars, which they considered not possible to be paid back. My mother cried desperately every day back then as I later discovered, but the scenario only seemed to go worse. My father, who bible study each day before bed, had a dream one day: a rock climber was climbing on a cliff up high alone when the night is approaching. The climber’s safety rope breaks, so the climber can only hang on the cliff with his hands. However, it is freezing and dark on the cliff. The climber cannot see anything on the cliff, believing he will soon die of low temperature or the fall from the cliff. Helplessly, the climber prayed to God, and God miraculously instructs the climber to let go of his hands to fall in to the darkness cliff. The climber, in fear, eventually did not let go of his hands and are frozen to death as the result. Later when his body is discovered, the police found a rock that is just right below him, which if he fell, would not have killed him. Soon after the dream, my father was told that a friend of his may offer him a job to pay off the debt in Taiwan, a place where my father does not intend to go. He recalled what happened to the climber and finally decided to let go of his linger in China and work in Taiwan. It turned out he not only was able to start paying the debt, but he also just needed to go to Taiwan once every two weeks, which is not a bad thing at all.

            As a Christian, I believe the existence of God, but I also understand the logic for those who do not have religions. I conclude that religion is really a subjective matter after all, since every incident can be translated in terms of probability. Nevertheless, we, as human beings, can also never rule out that a greater entity is in control. More often than not, it is the uncertainty that makes human beings to fear or imagine that such entity exists, and that to believe or not is simply a subjective matter.